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Asian insights: the role of TVET in hospitality and tourism in empowering women entrepreneurs in the Mekong region

Jitka Markova, 2024

Background

The UN Sustainable Development Goal 8 for Decent Work and Economic Growth has a specific target to “[By 2023], devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products” (STG Toolkit). One of the indicators is to measure the growth rate in the number of jobs by sex. Given that women comprise more than 52% of the global workforce in the tourism and hospitality sector, as the sector grows, there may be opportunities for women in this growth (UNESCO-UNEVOC 2024, WTTC, 2023).

This article explores how TVET in the hospitality and tourism sector supports women entrepreneurs in the Mekong region (comprising Thailand, Cambodia, Viet Nam Lao and Myanmar). It presents challenges women face in the sector and the potential opportunities that lie ahead as the industry expands. Country examples are presented of how the TVET sector in the region is adapting and evolving to meet these challenges for women to improve gender equality and inclusivity.

Introduction

The hospitality and tourism sector is a significant source of employment for women in countries in the Mekong region. While all countries in the region have lower rates of labour market participation for women than men, the tourism sector has above average rates of participation by women in the labour force compared to other sectors. In Thailand, the labour force participation rate for women is 59.86% (WEF, 2024) on average compared to 68% (Ramirez et al, 2023) in the tourism sector. In Viet Nam the female labour force participation rate is 68.54% (WEF, 2024)  compared to 79.4% (Ramirez et al, 2023) in the tourism sector. While women make up most of the tourism workforce, they often face challenges such as occupational segregation, pay gaps, and limited career advancement opportunities. They are frequently disproportionately represented in low-status, low-paying positions (see Ramirez et al, 2023).

The graph (WEF, 2024) below shows an example of a subsector of the hospitality and tourism sector (accommodation and food) where, globally, the proportion of women declines in relation to the grading of the job. The more senior the job, the fewer women there are.

Women face numerous barriers, obstacles and inequities in terms of their labour market participation rates and their ability to progress; they include:

  • Ability to challenge traditional gender norms and cultural practices
  • Ability to access skills training, employment and entrepreneurship
  • Capacity to progress in their jobs.

According to the Global Report on Women in Tourism (UNWTO, 2019), “though women comprise 53.7% of global tourism employees, they earn 14.7% less than men and are under-represented amongst tourism managers” (WT, 2019, p. 8).

In the countries of the Mekong region, women are increasingly engaging in tourism entrepreneurship to overcome these obstacles (Hutchings et al., 2020). The shift is driven by the need for flexibility and accessibility, enabling women to generate income while fulfilling societal expectations and roles. These entrepreneurial opportunities often provide financial independence and promote cultural preservation and sustainable tourism practices, strengthening women’s roles in society and contributing to local and regional development.

Some of these issues are discussed in the following text with some examples of how public policy, private organisations and development programmes are attempting to overcome these barriers.

Barriers faced by women in education, training and the labour market in the hospitality and tourism sector

Research and data on gender and tourism in the Mekong region are scarce, making it difficult to make a detailed analysis. However, the key trends observed align with the barriers faced more generally by women in education, training and the labour market, as depicted in the figure below (UNESCO-UNEVOC, 2020):

Applying these barriers to women in the Mekong region, they can take various forms as described below.

At the personal level, women face:

  • Limited access to childcare and family support which affects their availability for work and their capacity to progress in a career (Hutchings et al., 2020). Cultural norms define a woman’s role in the household, making it challenging for them to pursue employment opportunities. For example, in Thailand, women spend on average 11.83% of their time on unpaid domestic and care work compared to 3.75% of their male counterparts’ time (WEF,2024, p. 342). Tourism is notorious for jobs which have long and unsociable work hours. Tourist services are available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, therefore women who lack strong family support are forced to leave their jobs in the sector.
  • Limited access to financial resources and support preventing women from taking full advantage of education, training and business opportunities. The costs of furthering education can be prohibitive. In addition, women often lack access to affordable credit and limited access to business networks which can facilitate loans and entrepreneurship support (WT, 2019). For example, in Viet Namam women entrepreneurs face challenges in securing loans for their businesses due to a lack of collateral and traditional financial institutions' hesitance to invest in women-owned enterprises (IFC, 2017). Furthermore, women are less likely to have access to mentorship and networking opportunities, which are critical for entrepreneurial success.
  • Technological gaps and digitalisation. Digital transformation is sweeping through the tourism and hospitality industries, requiring entrepreneurs to adapt to new technologies and business models. However, the digital divide, particularly in rural areas, limits women’s ability to leverage digital tools for their businesses. In some cases, this is compounded by limited digital literacy among women who are new to the sector. Women entrepreneurs in the Mekong region are often left out of critical digital transformation processes that are essential to thriving in the modern hospitality and tourism industries.

Each of these barriers will impact women’s demand for support to access the necessary means to exercise entrepreneurship.

At an institutional level women face additional barriers including:

  • Limited access to education. While the Mekong region has made strides in improving access to education, barriers still exist for women. In rural areas, many women face limited access due to geographical constraints and traditional gender roles, which often mean families prioritize men’s education. Studies from Cambodia and Lao show that women, particularly in rural and remote areas, are more likely to lack the necessary technical skills needed to succeed in the tourism and hospitality sectors. There are limited entrepreneurship programmes in tourism and hospitality designed to suit women’s unique needs, especially those balancing family responsibilities and traditional roles. Many lack the flexibility needed for women to attend to caregiving duties or are primarily aimed at those living in large cities. As a result, women who wish to pursue tourism entrepreneurship often face barriers to obtaining essential skills and resources.
  • Low paid roles and insecure employment opportunities. In the labour market, women tend to be concentrated in specific low-paid roles like cleaners, servers, and tour guides, which is often attributed to traditional gender roles that associate women with domestic work (Hutchings et al., 2020). Women are over-represented in part-time, casual and seasonal employment (in Cambodia, women are significantly more likely to be in part-time work compared to males) (WEF, 2024, p.132). Women are also more likely to experience poor working conditions, inequality of opportunity, violence, exploitation, stress and sexual harassment (Zhang and Zhang, 2020).
  • Limited progression pathways. Women are underrepresented in management and leadership positions (Hutchings et al., 2020). In all countries in the region, women are less likely to be within the professional and technical worker category. Cultural barriers and the intersectionality of gender with other factors like socioeconomic background, ethnicity and family responsibilities play a role (WT, 2019, p. 16&78).

At the societal level, the same factors are in play. Despite many of the countries having national plans to achieve gender equality in their public policy infrastructure, culturally defined gender roles remain predominant and discourage women from taking leadership positions or starting a business (ASEAN, 2007), particularly in industries perceived as male-dominated. These societal expectations are mirrored in TVET enrolments, where male participation in technical courses outweighs female representation.

How TVET policy and TVET providers can support women’s access to decent work and entrepreneurship in the tourism and hospitality sector

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) plays a pivotal role in fostering economic development and inclusivity (Bhurtel, 2015), especially in the fast-growing hospitality and tourism sectors of the Mekong region. TVET programmes support economic growth in the region through workforce development and increasing employment rates. The TVET system not only delivers new technical skills for the labour market; providers are also significant players in promoting entrepreneurship and self-employment opportunities where job prospects are limited or where traditional employment roles may not suit the target group. TVET programmes hold the potential for empowering women, offering entrepreneurial opportunities and improving livelihoods in both urban and rural communities. TVET providers work with schools, local communities, the business sector and governments to contribute to strategies and opportunities for empowering women within the tourism and hospitality sector.

Below is a description of some ways in which this support has been achieved, with a short case study example from countries across the Mekong region.

  • Policy and institutional support. Government policies play a crucial role in ensuring women’s equitable access to education, training and the labour market (including entrepreneurship). Countries in the Mekong region have already made policy commitments towards gender equality but more needs to be done to ensure policies are effectively implemented.

    Cambodia: The National TVET Policy 2017-2025 and the TVET Strategic Action Plan 2019-2023 included adjustments of provisions and targets for women’s participation. The Directorate General of Technical Vocational Education and Training (DGTVET) published in 2016 their Gender Policy and Action Plans 2017-2026 that sets out a route map and action plan with key objectives:

    1. To ensure that Cambodian women, men and other vulnerable groups have equal and equitable opportunities to access and benefit from TVET
    2. To strengthen and engender the management and governance of DGTVET and TVET institutions
    For a full text of the gender plan, see https://lib.ncdd.gov.kh/storage/app/public/test_library/CAT_15345_1/2016-MLVT-Gender-Policy-and-Action-Plan-2017-2026-en.pdf
  • Public-private partnerships in skills training. Collaborations between TVET institutions, the private sector and civil society can create a more supportive environment for women entrepreneurs enabling them to gain access to real-world training opportunities, internships and job placements.

    Public-private partnerships in Thailand: In 2020, the TUI Care Foundation1, Plan International2and Defence for Children-ECPAT3 in collaboration with ROBINSON Khao Lak, launched the TUI Academy. The programme provides education and training for vulnerable young people and young women. It opens the door to more opportunities and a career in tourism. The three-year project combines life skills training, vocational training and practical experience to support 150 disadvantaged young people (aged between 18 to 24 years, at least 60% women) in building a career in tourism. Professional and life skills are offered during the first three months, including personal development, English language skills and entrepreneurship expertise. The students then undertake a three-month internship at the Robinson Khao Lak Resort and other hotels.

    More information can be seen here: https://www.tuicarefoundation.com/en/newsroom/news-en/2023/tui-academy-thailand-new-perspectives-for-young-people 

  • Access to financial markets. Partnerships with financial institutions can help address the funding gap by providing micro-loans and other financial products tailored to the needs of women entrepreneurs in the tourism sector.

    Advancing Gender-driven Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): In July 2024 at the Feminist Finance Forum, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and FDI Center launched the Pledge to Promote Gender equity in FDI. The pledge will increase the number of FDI-mandated organisations which incorporate gender equality in their investment promotion strategies. They have committed to apply a gender lens across their operations and services and to foster a culture of inclusion, leadership, and empowerment for women who work in the FDI sector. Initial signatories include Invest in Canada, Investment Fiji, Bhutan Invest, Board of Investments (BOI) Philippines, BOI Sri Lanka, BOI Thailand and Malaysia Digital Economy Corporation (MDEC).

  • Gender-responsive TVET programmes. Some countries in the Mekong region are integrating gender-responsive approaches into their TVET systems. Programmes specifically designed to provide women with the skills needed for hospitality and tourism careers — such as hotel management, food services and tour operations are being developed. In Cambodia, for instance, initiatives aimed at attracting women to TVET institutions have shown success by offering flexible schedules and childcare support​.

    Flexible learning programmes to support women in TVET:  Pour un Sourire d’Enfant (PSE) has been working in Cambodia since 1995, helping to get children out of extreme poverty and into jobs. In addition to accredited TVET courses, PSE offers short vocational training programmes to young people and adults who have failed to complete their schooling, enabling them to enter the job market quickly. The programme offers courses in cooking and housekeeping, including café/bakery classes and beauty therapy. Beneficiaries can enrol at any time of the year, as each training course operates on a session basis. This flexible approach enables greater participation of girls and women in TVET education by accommodating their unique challenges. By lowering barriers such as entry requirements and providing targeted support, this approach fosters inclusivity and empowers women and girls to achieve economic independence and contribute meaningfully to their communities.

    To learn more about PSE see https://www.pse.ngo/

  • Community-based Learning Approach. This helps to engage women in rural areas in TVET programmes. Local communities can be more receptive to training programmes that are delivered in culturally sensitive ways and take into account the specific needs of women. Such approaches also emphasize peer support and collective learning, which can build women’s confidence as they enter the tourism and hospitality sectors​.

    Vocational Training and Employment Support Services (VTESS) in Lao: Swisscontact is implementing a project to support vocational training and labour market insertion or re-entry for people between 15 and 35 years of age who have only completed primary and/ or lower secondary education (early school leavers), and are subjected to income poverty. They are implementing a community-based learning approach, including coaching for employment, that enables learners to progress and develop their skills at their own pace.

    More information can be seen here https://www.swisscontact.org/en/projects/vtess
  • Promoting women-led businesses in sustainable tourism for women entrepreneurs in the Mekong region. Women are already heavily involved in community-based tourism initiatives operating small guesthouses and craft-based businesses. TVET programmes that offer training in sustainable tourism practices and green skills can empower women to expand their businesses while contributing to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage sites​. For example, the Lao PDR government has successfully partnered with local communities to train women in eco-tourism, leading to increased female-led business ventures.

    The Luang Prabang Handle With Care project was funded by the EU between 2016 and 2019 in Lao in partnership with local travel and hospitality sector organisations. It built sustainable tourism products in this ecologically fragile destination. The project supported destination preservation through the responsible utilisation of natural resources and the protection of cultural heritage, and supported minorities. One of the key project activities was to promote women-led businesses in sustainable tourism resulting in 150 members of producer weaving and tailoring groups being trained and 30 newly developed handicraft products being brought to the market to increase women’s income.

    More information can be seen here https://www.switch-asia.eu/site/assets/files/1517/lao_pdr_handle_with_caere_impact_sheet.pdf
  • E-Commerce. This presents a new avenue for women entrepreneurs in hospitality and tourism. TVET providers in Thailand and Viet Nam are offering courses to equip women with the digital skills needed to market their services online, engage with customers through social media and manage booking systems. By closing the digital skills gap, TVET programmes help women access wider markets, particularly international tourists who increasingly rely on digital platforms for their travel decisions.

    Digital skills to support female entrepreneurship. In 2023, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Alobase launched Empower Her Tech – a digital skills training programme to enhance digital skills for young women entrepreneurs and females aged 18-35 involved in non-tech startups/businesses. The programme provides basic knowledge about Artificial Intelligence (AI) and emerging digital technologies, enabling young women to improve both their personal and business performances. The Empower Her Tech training programme builds communities of young women entrepreneurs to inspire and promote the application of digital technologies in both their lives and businesses.

    More information can be seen here https://www.undp.org/vietnam/press-releases/empowering-vietnamese-young-women-entrepreneurs-digital-skills
  • Entrepreneurship and leadership training. This training is an essential component of empowering women in the tourism sector. TVET providers in the Mekong region offer programmes to build women’s leadership skills, financial literacy and business management capabilities. These are crucial in helping women overcome the financial and operational challenges they face when starting and growing their businesses. Such initiatives foster a network of women leaders who serve as role models and mentors for future female entrepreneurs.

    Empowering young women from ethnic minorities in Viet Nam: KOTO, a not-for-profit social enterprise is implementing “Her Turn” – an immersive, residential 24-month vocational training and entrepreneurial skills development programme for rural and ethnic minority women in Viet Nam. The programme offers hospitality vocational training, life skill development and English language skills with socio-economic empowerment of women as the primary goal. 100% of KOTO trainees secure a job, of which 33% are in managerial roles and 78% contribute financially to their families. In addition, around 20 women have been able to study abroad in Australia under the scholarship program that KOTO created with its partners.

    More information can be seen here https://www.koto.com.au/herturn

Conclusion

This article has presented the significance that women play in the hospitality and tourism sector globally and the importance of that sector to female employment. However, women still face multiple barriers within the sector to access training, employment and decent work with longer-term prospects. In recognition of these barriers, multiple programmes have been designed to target women and to support their training as a means to improve their access to good quality jobs in the tourism sector in the Mekong region. Hospitality and tourism TVET plays an important role in empowering women entrepreneurs in the Mekong region. By addressing the challenges women face—such as limited access to education, financial barriers and digitalization gaps—TVET is unlocking significant opportunities for women to thrive in this dynamic sector. Through concerted efforts from governments, TVET institutions, and the private sector, women entrepreneurs are starting to lead the way in creating a more inclusive, sustainable and resilient tourism economy in the Mekong region.

  1. TUI (Touristik Union International) is a German tourist operator. ↩

     

  2. Plan International is a development and humanitarian organization focused on supporting women/girls ↩

     

  3. DCI-ECPAT are two organisations working to protect children against abuse in the tourism sector. ↩

     

 

 

Author: Jitka Markova

Reviewer: Sarah Elson Rogers

References

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Bhurtel, A (2015) Technical and Vocational Education and Training in Workforce Development. Journal of Training and Development 1(1):77-84 DOI:10.3126/jtd.v1i0.13094

Hutchings K, Moyleb C., Chaic A., Garofanod N. and Stewart Mooree (2020) Segregation of women in tourism employment in the APEC region, Tourism Management Perspectives 34, 100655

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World Economic Forum (2024), the Global Gender Gap Report 2024 Available at https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2024.pdf

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